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[ На других языках: [English](README.md), [Español](README-es.md), [Português](README-pt.md), [中文](README-zh.md) ]
# Искусство командной строки
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- [Описание](#meta)
- [Основы](#basics)
- [Ежедневное использование](#everyday-use)
- [Процессинг файлов и информации](#processing-files-and-data)
- [Системный дебаггинг](#system-debugging)
- [Команды в одну строчку](#one-liners)
- [Сложно, но полезно](#obscure-but-useful)
- [Только для Маководов](#macos-only)
- [Больше информации по теме](#more-resources)
- [Disclaimer](#disclaimer)
![curl -s 'https://raw.githubusercontent.com/jlevy/the-art-of-command-line/master/README.md' | egrep -o '`\w+`' | tr -d '`' | cowsay -W50](cowsay.png)
Продвинутому использованию командной строки зачастую не уделяют достаточного внимания, о терминале говорят как о чем-то мистическом; на самом же деле это умение очевидно и не очевидно увеличивает Вашу продуктивность в работе. Данный документ является подборкой заметок и советов, которые я нашел для себя полезными, работая с командной строкой в Linux. Некоторые из их них – простые и очевидные, но некоторые довольно сложные и предназначены для решения конкретных задач. Это небольшая публикация, но если Вы знаете обо всем, что тут написано, и можете вспомнить как это все использовать – вы много знаете!
Многое из того, что тут написано
[изначально](http://www.quora.com/What-are-some-lesser-known-but-useful-Unix-commands)
[появилось](http://www.quora.com/What-are-the-most-useful-Swiss-army-knife-one-liners-on-Unix)
на [Quora](http://www.quora.com/What-are-some-time-saving-tips-that-every-Linux-user-should-know),
начав идею там, похоже, что стоит развить ее на Gihub, где обитают люди, которые талантлевее меня и могут предлагать улучения данной подборки. Если Вы заметили ошибки (во всех вариантах перевода), пожалуйста оставьте тикет или киньте пулл-реквест (заранее изучив описание и посмотрев на уже созданнные тикеты и пулл-реквесты).
## Meta
Scope:
- Данная публикация предназначена как для новичков, так и для опытных людей. Цели: *объемность* (собрать все важные аспекты использования командной строки), *практичность* (давать конкретные примеры для самых частых юзкейсов) и *краткость* (не стоит углубляться в неочевидные вещи, о которых можно почитать в другом месте).
- Этот документ написан для пользователей Linux, с единственным исключеним – секцией "[Только для Маководов](#macos-only)". Все остальное подходит и может быть установлено под все UNIX/MacOS системы (и даже Cygwin).
- Фокусируемся на интерактивном Баше, но многие вещи так же могут быть использованы с другими шеллами; и в общем приминимы к Баш-скирптингу
- Эта инструкция включает в себя стандартные Unix комманды и те, для которых нужно устанавливать сторонние пакеты – они настолько полезны, что стоят того, чтобы их установили
Заметки:
- Для того, чтобы руководство оставалось одностраничным, вся информация вставлена прямо сюда. Вы достаточно умные для того, чтобы самостоятельно изучить вопрос более детально в другом месте. Используйте `apt-get`/`yum`/`dnf`/`pacman`/`pip`/`brew` (в зависимости от вашей системы управления пакетами) для установки новых програм.
- На [Explainshell](http://explainshell.com/) можно найти простое и детальное объясение того, что такое команды, флаги, пайпы и т.д.
## Основы
- Выучите основы Баша. Просто возьмите и напечатайте `man bash` в терминале и хотя бы просмотрите его; он довольно просто читается и он не очень большой. Другие шеллы тоже могут быть хороши, но Баш – мощная программа и Баш всегда под рукой (использование *исключительно* zsh, fish и т.д., которые наверняка круто выглядят на Вашем ноуте во многом Вас ограничивает, например Вы не сможете использовать возможности этих шеллов на уже существующем сервере).
- Выучите хотя бы один консольный редактор текста. Идеально Vim (`vi`), ведь у него нет конкурентов, когда вам нужно быстренько что-то подправить (даже если Вы постоянно сидите на Emacs/какой-нибудь тяжелой IDE или на каком-нибудь модном хипстерском редакторе)
- Знайте как читать документацию через `man` (для любознательных – `man man`; `man` по углам документа в скобках добавляет номер, например 1 – для обычных команд, 5 – для файлов, конвенций, 8 – для администативных команд). Ищите мануалы через `apropos`, и помните, что некоторые команды – не бинарники, а встроенные команды Баша, и помощь по ним можно получить через `help` и `help -d`.
- Узнайте о том, как перенаправлять ввод и вывод через `>` и `<` и пайпы `|`. Помните, что `>` – переписывает выходной файл, а `>>` добавляет к нему. Узнайте побольше про stdout and stderr.
- Узнайте побольше про file glob expansion with `*` (and perhaps `?` and `{`...`}`), кавычки а так же разницу между двойными `"` и одинарными `'` кавычками. (Больше о расширении переменных читайте ниже)
- Будьте знакомы с работой с процессами в Bash: `&`, **ctrl-z**, **ctrl-c**, `jobs`, `fg`, `bg`, `kill`, и т.д.
- Знайте `ssh`, и основы безпарольной аунтефикации через `ssh-agent`, `ssh-add`, и т.д.
- Основы работы с файлами: `ls` и `ls -l` (в частности узнайте, что значит каждый столбец в `ls -l`), `less`, `head`, `tail` и `tail -f` (или даже лучше, `less +F`), `ln` и `ln -s` (узнайте разницу между символьными ссылками и жесткими ссылками и почему жесткие ссылки лучше), `chown`, `chmod`, `du` (для быстрой сводки по использованию диска: `du -hk *`). Для менеджмента файловой системы, `df`, `mount`, `fdisk`, `mkfs`, `lsblk`.
- Основы работы с сетью: `ip` или `ifconfig`, `dig`.
- Хорошо знайте регулярные выражения и разные флаги к `grep`/`egrep`. Такие флаги как `-i`, `-o`, `-A`, и `-B` стоит знать.
- Обучитесь использованию системами управления пакетами `apt-get`, `yum`, `dnf` или `pacman` (в зависимости от дистрибутива). Занйте как искать и устанавливать пакеты и обязательно имейте установленым `pip` для установки командных утилит, написаных на Python (некоторые из тех, что вы найдете ниже легче всего установить через `pip`)
## Everyday use
- In Bash, use **Tab** to complete arguments and **ctrl-r** to search through command history.
- In Bash, use **ctrl-w** to delete the last word, and **ctrl-u** to delete all the way back to the start of the line. Use **alt-b** and **alt-f** to move by word, **ctrl-k** to kill to the end of the line, **ctrl-l** to clear the screen. See `man readline` for all the default keybindings in Bash. There are a lot. For example **alt-.** cycles through previous arguments, and **alt-*** expands a glob.
- Alternatively, if you love vi-style key-bindings, use `set -o vi`.
- To see recent commands, `history`. There are also many abbreviations such as `!$` (last argument) and `!!` last command, though these are often easily replaced with **ctrl-r** and **alt-.**.
- To go back to the previous working directory: `cd -`
- If you are halfway through typing a command but change your mind, hit **alt-#** to add a `#` at the beginning and enter it as a comment (or use **ctrl-a**, **#**, **enter**). You can then return to it later via command history.
- Use `xargs` (or `parallel`). It's very powerful. Note you can control how many items execute per line (`-L`) as well as parallelism (`-P`). If you're not sure if it'll do the right thing, use `xargs echo` first. Also, `-I{}` is handy. Examples:
```bash
find . -name '*.py' | xargs grep some_function
cat hosts | xargs -I{} ssh root@{} hostname
```
- `pstree -p` is a helpful display of the process tree.
- Use `pgrep` and `pkill` to find or signal processes by name (`-f` is helpful).
- Know the various signals you can send processes. For example, to suspend a process, use `kill -STOP [pid]`. For the full list, see `man 7 signal`
- Use `nohup` or `disown` if you want a background process to keep running forever.
- Check what processes are listening via `netstat -lntp` or `ss -plat` (for TCP; add `-u` for UDP).
- See also `lsof` for open sockets and files.
- Use `alias` to create shortcuts for commonly used commands. For example, `alias ll='ls -latr'` creates a new alias `ll`.
- In Bash scripts, use `set -x` for debugging output. Use strict modes whenever possible. Use `set -e` to abort on errors. Use `set -o pipefail` as well, to be strict about errors (though this topic is a bit subtle). For more involved scripts, also use `trap`.
- In Bash scripts, subshells (written with parentheses) are convenient ways to group commands. A common example is to temporarily move to a different working directory, e.g.
```bash
# do something in current dir
(cd /some/other/dir && other-command)
# continue in original dir
```
- In Bash, note there are lots of kinds of variable expansion. Checking a variable exists: `${name:?error message}`. For example, if a Bash script requires a single argument, just write `input_file=${1:?usage: $0 input_file}`. Arithmetic expansion: `i=$(( (i + 1) % 5 ))`. Sequences: `{1..10}`. Trimming of strings: `${var%suffix}` and `${var#prefix}`. For example if `var=foo.pdf`, then `echo ${var%.pdf}.txt` prints `foo.txt`.
- The output of a command can be treated like a file via `<(some command)`. For example, compare local `/etc/hosts` with a remote one:
```sh
diff /etc/hosts <(ssh somehost cat /etc/hosts)
```
- Know about "here documents" in Bash, as in `cat <<EOF ...`.
- In Bash, redirect both standard output and standard error via: `some-command >logfile 2>&1`. Often, to ensure a command does not leave an open file handle to standard input, tying it to the terminal you are in, it is also good practice to add `</dev/null`.
- Use `man ascii` for a good ASCII table, with hex and decimal values. For general encoding info, `man unicode`, `man utf-8`, and `man latin1` are helpful.
- Use `screen` or [`tmux`](https://tmux.github.io/) to multiplex the screen, especially useful on remote ssh sessions and to detach and re-attach to a session. A more minimal alternative for session persistence only is `dtach`.
- In ssh, knowing how to port tunnel with `-L` or `-D` (and occasionally `-R`) is useful, e.g. to access web sites from a remote server.
- It can be useful to make a few optimizations to your ssh configuration; for example, this `~/.ssh/config` contains settings to avoid dropped connections in certain network environments, use compression (which is helpful with scp over low-bandwidth connections), and multiplex channels to the same server with a local control file:
```
TCPKeepAlive=yes
ServerAliveInterval=15
ServerAliveCountMax=6
Compression=yes
ControlMaster auto
ControlPath /tmp/%r@%h:%p
ControlPersist yes
```
- A few other options relevant to ssh are security sensitive and should be enabled with care, e.g. per subnet or host or in trusted networks: `StrictHostKeyChecking=no`, `ForwardAgent=yes`
- To get the permissions on a file in octal form, which is useful for system configuration but not available in `ls` and easy to bungle, use something like
```sh
stat -c '%A %a %n' /etc/timezone
```
- For interactive selection of values from the output of another command, use [`percol`](https://github.com/mooz/percol) or [`fzf`](https://github.com/junegunn/fzf).
- For interaction with files based on the output of another command (like `git`), use `fpp` ([PathPicker](https://github.com/facebook/PathPicker)).
- For a simple web server for all files in the current directory (and subdirs), available to anyone on your network, use:
`python -m SimpleHTTPServer 7777` (for port 7777 and Python 2) and `python -m http.server 7777` (for port 7777 and Python 3).
- For running a command with privileges, use `sudo` (for root) or `sudo -u` (for another user). Use `su` or `sudo bash` to actually run a shell as that user. Use `su -` to simulate a fresh login as root or another user.
## Processing files and data
- To locate a file by name in the current directory, `find . -iname '*something*'` (or similar). To find a file anywhere by name, use `locate something` (but bear in mind `updatedb` may not have indexed recently created files).
- For general searching through source or data files (more advanced than `grep -r`), use [`ag`](https://github.com/ggreer/the_silver_searcher).
- To convert HTML to text: `lynx -dump -stdin`
- For Markdown, HTML, and all kinds of document conversion, try [`pandoc`](http://pandoc.org/).
- If you must handle XML, `xmlstarlet` is old but good.
- For JSON, use `jq`.
- For Excel or CSV files, [csvkit](https://github.com/onyxfish/csvkit) provides `in2csv`, `csvcut`, `csvjoin`, `csvgrep`, etc.
- For Amazon S3, [`s3cmd`](https://github.com/s3tools/s3cmd) is convenient and [`s4cmd`](https://github.com/bloomreach/s4cmd) is faster. Amazon's [`aws`](https://github.com/aws/aws-cli) is essential for other AWS-related tasks.
- Know about `sort` and `uniq`, including uniq's `-u` and `-d` options -- see one-liners below. See also `comm`.
- Know about `cut`, `paste`, and `join` to manipulate text files. Many people use `cut` but forget about `join`.
- Know about `wc` to count newlines (`-l`), characters (`-m`), words (`-w`) and bytes (`-c`).
- Know about `tee` to copy from stdin to a file and also to stdout, as in `ls -al | tee file.txt`.
- Know that locale affects a lot of command line tools in subtle ways, including sorting order (collation) and performance. Most Linux installations will set `LANG` or other locale variables to a local setting like US English. But be aware sorting will change if you change locale. And know i18n routines can make sort or other commands run *many times* slower. In some situations (such as the set operations or uniqueness operations below) you can safely ignore slow i18n routines entirely and use traditional byte-based sort order, using `export LC_ALL=C`.
- Know basic `awk` and `sed` for simple data munging. For example, summing all numbers in the third column of a text file: `awk '{ x += $3 } END { print x }'`. This is probably 3X faster and 3X shorter than equivalent Python.
- To replace all occurrences of a string in place, in one or more files:
```sh
perl -pi.bak -e 's/old-string/new-string/g' my-files-*.txt
```
- To rename many files at once according to a pattern, use `rename`. For complex renames, [`repren`](https://github.com/jlevy/repren) may help.
```sh
# Recover backup files foo.bak -> foo:
rename 's/\.bak$//' *.bak
# Full rename of filenames, directories, and contents foo -> bar:
repren --full --preserve-case --from foo --to bar .
```
- Use `shuf` to shuffle or select random lines from a file.
- Know `sort`'s options. For numbers, use `-n`, or `-h` for handling human-readable numbers (e.g. from `du -h`). Know how keys work (`-t` and `-k`). In particular, watch out that you need to write `-k1,1` to sort by only the first field; `-k1` means sort according to the whole line. Stable sort (`sort -s`) can be useful. For example, to sort first by field 2, then secondarily by field 1, you can use `sort -k1,1 | sort -s -k2,2`.
- If you ever need to write a tab literal in a command line in Bash (e.g. for the -t argument to sort), press **ctrl-v** **[Tab]** or write `$'\t'` (the latter is better as you can copy/paste it).
- The standard tools for patching source code are `diff` and `patch`. See also `diffstat` for summary statistics of a diff. Note `diff -r` works for entire directories. Use `diff -r tree1 tree2 | diffstat` for a summary of changes.
- For binary files, use `hd` for simple hex dumps and `bvi` for binary editing.
- Also for binary files, `strings` (plus `grep`, etc.) lets you find bits of text.
- For binary diffs (delta compression), use `xdelta3`.
- To convert text encodings, try `iconv`. Or `uconv` for more advanced use; it supports some advanced Unicode things. For example, this command lowercases and removes all accents (by expanding and dropping them):
```sh
uconv -f utf-8 -t utf-8 -x '::Any-Lower; ::Any-NFD; [:Nonspacing Mark:] >; ::Any-NFC; ' < input.txt > output.txt
```
- To split files into pieces, see `split` (to split by size) and `csplit` (to split by a pattern).
- Use `zless`, `zmore`, `zcat`, and `zgrep` to operate on compressed files.
## System debugging
- For web debugging, `curl` and `curl -I` are handy, or their `wget` equivalents, or the more modern [`httpie`](https://github.com/jakubroztocil/httpie).
- To know disk/cpu/network status, use `iostat`, `netstat`, `top` (or the better `htop`), and (especially) `dstat`. Good for getting a quick idea of what's happening on a system.
- For a more in-depth system overview, use [`glances`](https://github.com/nicolargo/glances). It presents you with several system level statistics in one terminal window. Very helpful for quickly checking on various subsystems.
- To know memory status, run and understand the output of `free` and `vmstat`. In particular, be aware the "cached" value is memory held by the Linux kernel as file cache, so effectively counts toward the "free" value.
- Java system debugging is a different kettle of fish, but a simple trick on Oracle's and some other JVMs is that you can run `kill -3 <pid>` and a full stack trace and heap summary (including generational garbage collection details, which can be highly informative) will be dumped to stderr/logs.
- Use `mtr` as a better traceroute, to identify network issues.
- For looking at why a disk is full, `ncdu` saves time over the usual commands like `du -sh *`.
- To find which socket or process is using bandwidth, try `iftop` or `nethogs`.
- The `ab` tool (comes with Apache) is helpful for quick-and-dirty checking of web server performance. For more complex load testing, try `siege`.
- For more serious network debugging, `wireshark`, `tshark`, or `ngrep`.
- Know about `strace` and `ltrace`. These can be helpful if a program is failing, hanging, or crashing, and you don't know why, or if you want to get a general idea of performance. Note the profiling option (`-c`), and the ability to attach to a running process (`-p`).
- Know about `ldd` to check shared libraries etc.
- Know how to connect to a running process with `gdb` and get its stack traces.
- Use `/proc`. It's amazingly helpful sometimes when debugging live problems. Examples: `/proc/cpuinfo`, `/proc/xxx/cwd`, `/proc/xxx/exe`, `/proc/xxx/fd/`, `/proc/xxx/smaps`.
- When debugging why something went wrong in the past, `sar` can be very helpful. It shows historic statistics on CPU, memory, network, etc.
- For deeper systems and performance analyses, look at `stap` ([SystemTap](https://sourceware.org/systemtap/wiki)), [`perf`](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perf_(Linux)), and [`sysdig`](https://github.com/draios/sysdig).
- Check what OS you're on with `uname` or `uname -a` (general Unix/kernel info) or `lsb_release -a` (Linux distro info).
- Use `dmesg` whenever something's acting really funny (it could be hardware or driver issues).
## One-liners
A few examples of piecing together commands:
- It is remarkably helpful sometimes that you can do set intersection, union, and difference of text files via `sort`/`uniq`. Suppose `a` and `b` are text files that are already uniqued. This is fast, and works on files of arbitrary size, up to many gigabytes. (Sort is not limited by memory, though you may need to use the `-T` option if `/tmp` is on a small root partition.) See also the note about `LC_ALL` above and `sort`'s `-u` option (left out for clarity below).
```sh
cat a b | sort | uniq > c # c is a union b
cat a b | sort | uniq -d > c # c is a intersect b
cat a b b | sort | uniq -u > c # c is set difference a - b
```
- Use `grep . *` to visually examine all contents of all files in a directory, e.g. for directories filled with config settings, like `/sys`, `/proc`, `/etc`.
- Summing all numbers in the third column of a text file (this is probably 3X faster and 3X less code than equivalent Python):
```sh
awk '{ x += $3 } END { print x }' myfile
```
- If want to see sizes/dates on a tree of files, this is like a recursive `ls -l` but is easier to read than `ls -lR`:
```sh
find . -type f -ls
```
- Use `xargs` or `parallel` whenever you can. Note you can control how many items execute per line (`-L`) as well as parallelism (`-P`). If you're not sure if it'll do the right thing, use xargs echo first. Also, `-I{}` is handy. Examples:
```sh
find . -name '*.py' | xargs grep some_function
cat hosts | xargs -I{} ssh root@{} hostname
```
- Say you have a text file, like a web server log, and a certain value that appears on some lines, such as an `acct_id` parameter that is present in the URL. If you want a tally of how many requests for each `acct_id`:
```sh
cat access.log | egrep -o 'acct_id=[0-9]+' | cut -d= -f2 | sort | uniq -c | sort -rn
```
- Run this function to get a random tip from this document (parses Markdown and extracts an item):
```sh
function taocl() {
curl -s https://raw.githubusercontent.com/jlevy/the-art-of-command-line/master/README.md |
pandoc -f markdown -t html |
xmlstarlet fo --html --dropdtd |
xmlstarlet sel -t -v "(html/body/ul/li[count(p)>0])[$RANDOM mod last()+1]" |
xmlstarlet unesc | fmt -80
}
```
## Obscure but useful
- `expr`: perform arithmetic or boolean operations or evaluate regular expressions
- `m4`: simple macro processor
- `yes`: print a string a lot
- `cal`: nice calendar
- `env`: run a command (useful in scripts)
- `printenv`: print out environment variables (useful in debugging and scripts)
- `look`: find English words (or lines in a file) beginning with a string
- `cut `and `paste` and `join`: data manipulation
- `fmt`: format text paragraphs
- `pr`: format text into pages/columns
- `fold`: wrap lines of text
- `column`: format text into columns or tables
- `expand` and `unexpand`: convert between tabs and spaces
- `nl`: add line numbers
- `seq`: print numbers
- `bc`: calculator
- `factor`: factor integers
- `gpg`: encrypt and sign files
- `toe`: table of terminfo entries
- `nc`: network debugging and data transfer
- `socat`: socket relay and tcp port forwarder (similar to `netcat`)
- `slurm`: network trafic visualization
- `dd`: moving data between files or devices
- `file`: identify type of a file
- `tree`: display directories and subdirectories as a nesting tree; like `ls` but recursive
- `stat`: file info
- `tac`: print files in reverse
- `shuf`: random selection of lines from a file
- `comm`: compare sorted files line by line
- `pv`: monitor the progress of data through a pipe
- `hd` and `bvi`: dump or edit binary files
- `strings`: extract text from binary files
- `tr`: character translation or manipulation
- `iconv` or `uconv`: conversion for text encodings
- `split `and `csplit`: splitting files
- `sponge`: read all input before writing it, useful for reading from then writing to the same file, e.g., `grep -v something some-file | sponge some-file`
- `units`: unit conversions and calculations; converts furlongs per fortnight to twips per blink (see also `/usr/share/units/definitions.units`)
- `7z`: high-ratio file compression
- `ldd`: dynamic library info
- `nm`: symbols from object files
- `ab`: benchmarking web servers
- `strace`: system call debugging
- `mtr`: better traceroute for network debugging
- `cssh`: visual concurrent shell
- `rsync`: sync files and folders over SSH
- `wireshark` and `tshark`: packet capture and network debugging
- `ngrep`: grep for the network layer
- `host` and `dig`: DNS lookups
- `lsof`: process file descriptor and socket info
- `dstat`: useful system stats
- [`glances`](https://github.com/nicolargo/glances): high level, multi-subsystem overview
- `iostat`: CPU and disk usage stats
- `htop`: improved version of top
- `last`: login history
- `w`: who's logged on
- `id`: user/group identity info
- `sar`: historic system stats
- `iftop` or `nethogs`: network utilization by socket or process
- `ss`: socket statistics
- `dmesg`: boot and system error messages
- `hdparm`: SATA/ATA disk manipulation/performance
- `lsb_release`: Linux distribution info
- `lsblk`: List block devices: a tree view of your disks and disk paritions
- `lshw`, `lscpu`, `lspci`, `lsusb`, `dmidecode`: hardware information, including CPU, BIOS, RAID, graphics, devices, etc.
- `fortune`, `ddate`, and `sl`: um, well, it depends on whether you consider steam locomotives and Zippy quotations "useful"
## MacOS only
These are items relevant *only* on MacOS.
- Package management with `brew` (Homebrew) and/or `port` (MacPorts). These can be used to install on MacOS many of the above commands.
- Copy output of any command to a desktop app with `pbcopy` and paste input from one with `pbpaste`.
- To open a file with a desktop app, use `open` or `open -a /Applications/Whatever.app`.
- Spotlight: Search files with `mdfind` and list metadata (such as photo EXIF info) with `mdls`.
- Be aware MacOS is based on BSD Unix, and many commands (for example `ps`, `ls`, `tail`, `awk`, `sed`) have many subtle variations from Linux, which is largely influenced by System V-style Unix and GNU tools. You can often tell the difference by noting a man page has the heading "BSD General Commands Manual." In some cases GNU versions can be installed, too (such as `gawk` and `gsed` for GNU awk and sed). If writing cross-platform Bash scripts, avoid such commands (for example, consider Python or `perl`) or test carefully.
## More resources
- [awesome-shell](https://github.com/alebcay/awesome-shell): A curated list of shell tools and resources.
- [Strict mode](http://redsymbol.net/articles/unofficial-bash-strict-mode/) for writing better shell scripts.
## Disclaimer
With the exception of very small tasks, code is written so others can read it. With power comes responsibility. The fact you *can* do something in Bash doesn't necessarily mean you should! ;)
## License
[![Creative Commons License](https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-sa/4.0/88x31.png)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)
This work is licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/).
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